Causal Forests for Heterogeneous Effects

While understanding the Average Treatment Effect (ATE) using methods like Double Machine Learning provides a population-level view, the impact of an intervention often varies significantly across different individuals or subgroups. For instance, a marketing campaign might be highly effective for one customer segment but ineffective for another. Estimating these varying effects, known as Conditional Average Treatment Effects (CATE), $\tau(x) = E[Y(1) - Y(0) | X=x]$, is essential for personalized decision-making and optimizing interventions. Causal Forests, developed by Susan Athey and Guido Imbens, extend the powerful non-parametric Random Forest algorithm specifically for this task.

From Prediction Forests to Causal Forests

Standard Random Forests are typically trained to minimize the prediction error for the outcome $Y$. They build decision trees by recursively splitting the data based on covariates $X$ to create leaves where the variance of $Y$ is minimized. The prediction for a new point is the average $Y$ value of the training samples in its leaf.

Causal Forests adapt this process to focus directly on treatment effect heterogeneity. Instead of splitting nodes to minimize outcome variance, they split nodes to maximize the difference in treatment effects between the resulting child nodes. The goal is to isolate subgroups (represented by leaves) where the treatment effect $\tau(x)$ is distinctly different.

The Core Idea: Honest Estimation and Causal Splitting

Two primary innovations distinguish Causal Forests:

1. Honest Estimation: To avoid bias induced by using the same data for both constructing the tree structure (selecting splits) and estimating the effects within the leaves, Causal Forests employ "honesty". The training data is typically split in half. One half is used to determine the optimal splits and build the tree structure. The other half (the "estimation set") is then used only to estimate the treatment effect within each final leaf of the established structure. This separation prevents overfitting the treatment effect signal during tree construction.

2. Causal Splitting Criterion: The splitting criterion is fundamentally changed. At each potential split point, the algorithm evaluates how much that split increases the heterogeneity of the estimated treatment effects. A common approach involves estimating the treatment effect within the potential left and right child nodes (using only a fraction of the "splitting set" data for computational efficiency, often incorporating local regression or similar techniques) and choosing the split that maximizes the difference (e.g., squared difference) between these estimates, weighted by the proportion of samples going to each node. The objective is to find splits that best separate units with high treatment effects from units with low treatment effects.

Algorithm Mechanics

The construction of a Causal Forest generally follows these steps:

1. Subsampling: For each tree in the forest, draw a random subsample of the original data.
2. Splitting Data: Divide the subsample into a "splitting set" and an "estimation set".
3. Tree Growth (using Splitting Set):
   • Recursively partition the feature space $X$ using the splitting set.
   • At each node, search across features and split points.
   • Select the split that maximizes a criterion measuring treatment effect heterogeneity between the potential child nodes. This often involves solving a local CATE estimation problem within the node to guide the split.
   • Continue splitting until stopping criteria are met (e.g., minimum leaf size).
4. Leaf Estimation (using Estimation Set):
   • For the final tree structure determined in step 3, pass the estimation set down the tree.
   • Within each terminal leaf $L$, estimate the CATE $\hat{\tau}_L$. A simple way is the difference-in-means estimator for the units in the estimation set that fall into leaf $L$: $$\hat{\tau}_L = \frac{1}{| \{i \in L, T_i=1\} |} \sum_{i \in L, T_i=1} Y_i - \frac{1}{| \{i \in L, T_i=0\} |} \sum_{i \in L, T_i=0} Y_i$$
   • More sophisticated estimators involving propensity score weighting or outcome regression adjustments within the leaf can also be used.
5. Prediction: For a new observation with features $x$, its CATE estimate $\hat{\tau}(x)$ is the average of the $\hat{\tau}_L$ estimates from all trees in the forest where $x$ falls into leaf $L$.

Generalized Random Forests (GRF)

The concepts behind Causal Forests have been generalized in the Generalized Random Forests (GRF) framework (Athey, Tibshirani, Wager, 2019). GRF provides a view where forests are trained to find weights $\alpha_i(x)$ for each training unit $i$ based on a target unit $x$. These weights reflect how relevant unit $i$ is for estimating the quantity of interest at point $x$. The forest structure effectively defines these adaptive nearest neighbors. The target parameter (like CATE) is then estimated by solving local estimating equations using these weights. For CATE, this often involves incorporating orthogonalization techniques similar to Double Machine Learning, making the estimates more stable to bias introduced by the estimation of functions (propensity score $e(x)=P(T=1|X=x)$ and conditional outcome $m(x)=E[Y|X=x]$).

Implementation and Considerations

Libraries like grf for R and EconML (which includes Causal Forest implementations and related methods) for Python provide implementations.

• Unconfoundedness: Like other methods based on adjusting for observed confounders (including DML and meta-learners), Causal Forests rely fundamentally on the unconfoundedness assumption: $(Y(1), Y(0)) \perp T | X$. They estimate CATE assuming all relevant confounders $X$ are measured and included in the model.
• Hyperparameter Tuning: Important parameters include the number of trees, the fraction of features considered at each split (mtry), the minimum leaf size (min.node.size), and potentially parameters related to honesty and subsampling ratios. Tuning should aim to optimize metrics relevant to CATE estimation performance (often requiring specialized validation techniques, discussed later in this chapter).
• Variable Importance: Causal Forests can provide variable importance measures indicating which features $X_k$ are most influential in driving treatment effect heterogeneity. This differs from standard variable importance which measures importance for predicting the outcome $Y$.
• Computational Cost: Building Causal Forests is computationally more intensive than standard Random Forests due to the more complex splitting criterion and the honesty requirement.

Example: Visualizing Heterogeneity

Imagine we have estimated CATE using a Causal Forest and want to understand how the effect varies with a specific customer feature, like 'prior engagement score'. A plot might reveal the nature of this heterogeneity.

This plot shows potential CATE estimates varying non-linearly with a customer's prior engagement score. The treatment appears most effective for customers with moderate engagement (scores 3-5) and less effective or even slightly negative for those with very low or very high engagement.

Advantages and Disadvantages

Advantages:

• Non-parametric: Automatically captures complex interactions and non-linear relationships driving heterogeneity without needing pre-specification.
• High-dimensional Data: Effective at handling datasets with many covariates ($X$).
• Honest Estimation: Provides less biased estimates of CATE compared to naive approaches.
• Inference: The underlying theory often allows for constructing confidence intervals for the CATE estimates $\hat{\tau}(x)$.
• Variable Importance for Heterogeneity: Identifies drivers of variation in treatment effects.

Disadvantages:

• Computational Intensity: Can be slow to train on very large datasets.
• Interpretability: While individual $\hat{\tau}(x)$ predictions are clear, the ensemble of trees itself is a "black box". Interpreting why the CATE varies requires examining variable importance or plotting CATE against covariates.
• Sensitivity to Tuning: Performance can depend significantly on hyperparameter choices.
• Requires Unconfoundedness: Does not inherently solve issues of unobserved confounding.

Causal Forests offer a powerful, data-driven approach to finding and quantifying treatment effect differences, moving from average effects to enable more detailed and effective interventions in complex systems. They represent a significant application of machine learning principles tailored specifically for causal inference questions.